-two separate branches of science

Anatomy

-comes from a Latin word which means to dissect
-refers to the study of structure and the relationship among those structures

Subdivisions of Anatomy

*gross anatomy--- macroscopic

*histology--- the study of tissues

*cytology--- study of cells and their structures

surface anatomy--- morphology and markings

systemic anatomy--- the body systems and how they affect each other

regional anatomy--- the body regions and the organs and structures in the regions

developmental anatomy--- from fertilized egg to adult

embryology--- fertilized egg to the 8th week

pathology--- reasons for death

radiology--- x-rays

Physiology

-study of the functions of the body parts
-how the structures work

-structure of the part often determines the function it will perform (ex. myocardium of the ventricles is thicker then in the atrium)

-function often determines size and shape of the structure (ex. large weight bearing bones)

**Anatomy and Physiology are so closely related that we do both at the same time.**

Body Organization

1. Chemical--- include all essential reactions for maintaining life

2. Cells

3. Tissues--- groups of similar cells connected by intercellular matrix and perform specific functions

4. Organs--- two or more tissues, perform functions, maintain recognizable shape

5. Systems--- groups of organs that work toward a common goal

6. Organism

Life Characteristics

1. Metabolism--- sum of chemical processes that occur in the body

catabolism---provides energy for life
anabolism---uses energy to build new things

2. Excitability--- sense change in and around us

3. Conductivity--- ability of cells to carry stimuli through the body

4. Contractility--- movement

5. Growth--- increase in size or number of cells

6. Differentiation--- cells can change from unspecialized cell (egg) to a specialized cell

7. Reproduction---

-formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement

-production of a new individual

 

 

Anatomical Characteristics

Vertebral column

Tube-within-a-tube (external surface of body wall and the internal surface of the gastrointestinal tract)

Bilaterally symmetrical (especially on the exterior)

Anatomical position---
standing upright, facing the observer, arms at the side, palms forward

Directional terms---
-refer to body parts in the anatomical position
-eliminates unnecessary words

Dorsal---

includes the skull and vertebral column

Ventral--
-everything else
-subdivided into two

A) Thoracic cavity
1. Pleural cavity contains the lungs

2. Mediastinum contains everything in thorax but the lungs

3. Pericardial cavity contains the heart

B) Abdominopelvic cavity
1. Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, sm. Int, and most of the large Int.
2. Pelvic cavity contains the reproductive parts, urinary bladder, appendix and some lg. Int.

general overview to the 11 different systems

1. Integumentary---
-skin and structures derived from the skin
-hair, nails, sweat glands and oil glands

Function
helps regulate body temperature, protects, eliminates waste, makes vitamin D, receives stimuli like temperature, pressure and pain

2. Skeletal--- bones, joints and cartilages of the body

Function
supports and protects, houses cells that produce cells (blood),
stores minerals

3. Muscular--- skeletal, cardiac and visceral (smooth)

Function
movement, maintains posture and produces heat

4. Nervous--- brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs

Function
regulates all body activities

5. Endocrine--- glands that produce hormones

Function
regulate body activity through hormones transported through the blood

6. Cardiovascular--- Blood, heart and blood vessels

Function
-distributes O₂ and nutrients to cells , carries waste from cells,
-maintains pH balance of the body, protects against disease, regulates body temperature, stops bleeding

7. Lymphatic--- lymph, lymphatic vessels, structures and organs containing lymphatic tissue (ex. spleen, thymus gland, tonsils)

Function
returns proteins and plasma to the circulatory system, transports fats and produces white blood cells

8. Respiratory--- lungs and passageways in and out

Function
gas exchange, regulate pH balance

9. Digestive--- long tube on the inside of the inside called the Gastrointestinal Tract (GI tract) and the associated organs such as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands

Function
performs chemical and physical breakdown of food, absorption of food, eliminates waste

10. Urinary--- organs that collect and eliminate liquid waste

Function
-regulates chemical composition of the blood (ex. nitrates)
-regulates fluid balance, regulates pH balance

11. Reproductive--- organs that produce, store and transport reproductive cells

Function
reproduces the organism

Homeostasis
-maintain the physiological limits of the body
-condition in which the internal environment of the body remains in certain ranges of chemical, temperature, and pressure

positive feedback system
-reaction of the body intensifies the stress
-stimulatory-stimulatory
**most positive feed back systems are destructive

negative feedback system
-reaction of the body counteracts the stress
-stimulatory-inhibitory

**the two feedback systems work to maintain homeostasis

3 factors must be met for an organism to be in homeostasis

1. optimum concentration of gases, nutrients, ions and water

2. optimum temperature (about 98.6 degrees F / 37 degrees C)

3. optimum pressure for health of the cells

9 different cell structures

1. Cytoplasm---
-material between the nucleus and the cell membrane
-contains the organelles and the inclusions bodies

2. Cell membrane---
-selectively permeable membrane
-bipolar lipid membrane

hydrophobic (fear water)



hydophilic (likes water)

3. Nucleus---
-most notable structure in the cell
-control center of the cell
-contains DNA
4. Mitochondria---
-formation of energy (ATP)
-”powerhouse” of the cell
-interfolded membrane (cristae)
-increases surface area to increase the energy production

5. Golgi Complex---
-often connected to endoplasmic reticulum
-synthesis of carbohydrates, join protein to from a glycoprotein
-found in large numbers in secretory tissue

6. Endoplasmic Reticulum---
-system of double membranous channels that run throughout the cell
-”transportation”
-2 types

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
-studded with ribosomes that are thought to synthesize proteins

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
-make steroid hormones involved in lipid and fat synthesis

7. Ribosomes---
-tiny granules that are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
-site of protein synthesis, receive genetic instructions that tells the order of amino acids that are liked to form proteins

8. Lysosomes---
-appear as membrane enclosed spheres
-formed by golgi complex and contain acid digestive enzymes capable of breaking down many molecules
-white blood cells contain large numbers of lysosomes

9. Centrosomes and Centrioles--- active in cell division

(IPMAT)

INTERPHASE
resting cell, DNA replication

PROPHASE
-chromosomes become visible
-spindle fibers can be seen

METAPHASE
chromatid pairs line up on the equatorial plane of the cell

ANAPHASE
-chromatid pairs split and individual chromosomes are “pulled” to opposite poles of the cell

TELOPHASE
-nuclear membrane forms around bunch of chromosomes at each pole
-spindle fibers disappear

CYTOKINESIS
-begins during Anaphase and stops at the same time as telophase
-cell splits at the equatorial plane

Allele---
-one of two or more states of an expressed gene (ex. eye color)

Mutations---
-change of genetic message of a cell
-causes may include:

Radiation
breaks the DNA or causes errors in nucleotide choices during repairing

Chemical
base analog mispairing
C T A

G A T

Spontaneous
parts of the base pairs left out

Recombinational
-”physical” combination problems
-when DNA put back together something is left over or extra pieces are added

Disorders
end result of a detrimental allele

Cystic Fibrosis
-most common FATAL genetic disorder in Caucasians

-infected patient secretes thick mucous that clogs their lungs and passages of the pancreas and liver

-”recessive”

-caused by a defect in the way cells transport chloride ions across membranes

Sickle Cell Anemia
-shape of RBC hemoglobin are defective

-sickle shape make the RBC’s difficult to pass through small blood vessels

Tay-Sachs Disease
-incurable disorder in which the brain deteriorates

-kids rarely live past the age of 5

-in the United States it occurs in about 1 in 30,000 births

-higher rate among Jewish Americans with European ancestors (1 in 3600)

-lysosomes in brain can’t break down certain material, swell, bust and oxidize the surrounding cells

Hemophilia
-”bleeders”

-afflicted are slow to clot or don’t clot at all

Muscular Dystrophy
-wasting away of muscles

-caused by degradation of myelin coating of the nerves that stimulate the muscles

-when muscles are NOT stimulated they atrophy (shrink)

-sex-linked-recessive

-1 in 10,000 people world wide will develop